While Turkey has often
been described as a “crossroad of civilizations,” and Istanbul is known as the
city that bridges Europe and Asia, Spain is also well-known as "the bridge
between two continents, and Andalusia as the door to two seas. These gateways of
mankind, where ancient cultures have fought since the earliest times of
civilization, have also served as melting pots of cultures, and have
produced political, cultural and economic legacies that reflect the rich and
diverse cultures which criss-crossed the continents.
The historic legacies of Spain and Turkey can therefore play an important role in the 21st century’s quest for peaceful coexistence. With the support of the United Nations and international community, these two countries are now working to bridge cultural divides, and to help unite the world in countering extremism and emerging threats to world peace. Thus, world civilization, through UN leadership, can work to ensure that religious and cultural diversity are respected around the world. International security can also be enhanced by UN monitoring of state interests, injustices, inequalities, and ideologies, that can fuel clashes between and within civilizations (particularly in the Middle East).
The first meeting of the UN-led “Alliance for Civilizations” will be held on the eastern Spanish island of Mallorca and will be attended by the prime ministers of Turkey and Spain, along with a distinguished 18-member group of “wise men” appointed by the United Nations. The three-day UN conference, which begins on Nov. 27, aims to establish a fresh platform that can explore new approaches to promoting stability, and establishing justice and respect for international law.
As other nations in the Euro-Mediterranean region and around the world try to enhance global cooperation, the co-sponsors Spain and Turkey will coordinate activities with UN appointed scientific, political, and religious leaders. Over the next two years, these selected wise men will develop proposals, an action plan, and a vision for the Alliance for Civilization in order to cultivate relations between civilizations at the governmental and civil levels. The first “Director of the Office of the Alliance for Civilizations,” Prof. Tomas Mastnak, has recently been named and will take up his duties at the end of December.
SPAIN’S MULTICULTURAL HERITAGE
The history of Islamic Spain is commonly known to have covered the period 711 to 1492, and follows the collapse of the Visigothic kingdom. This period gave rise to some of the greatest intellectual achievements Europe has seen, including the development of scientific knowledge, philosophy, art and architecture, literature, poetry, as well as botanical and agricultural techniques. These achievements took place amidst a unique atmosphere of religious diversity and tolerance which existed during the Muslim period of rule in Spain.
As one of the great ages of mankind, this era gave rise to some of the most influential thinkers of the civilized world, such as: Avicenna (Ibn Sina); Averroës (Ibn Rushd), the famous Arab scholar, philosopher, physicist, mathematician, doctor, and astrologer; Maimonides (Moises Ben Maimon) the Jewish scholar who was famed for his learning in medicine, theology, and philosophy; Ibn Arabi; Ibn Tufayl; Ibn Khaldun; and Solomon Ibn Gabirol, one of the greatest Spanish-Jewish poets. Averroës, who was well versed in the Greek sciences, is also credited for playing an important part in the transmission of science to Europe, as well as in the transmission of the invaluable thoughts of Aristotle.
These historic exchanges between civilizations help to demonstrate how civilizations are indebted to each other. The assimilation of Jews and Christians into the Muslim-Arab population was another evolving aspect of Islamic civilization in Europe, as well as how Muslim society, its way of thinking and living, became an integral part of Spanish life. Some historians however maintain that the reason for the fall of Islamic Spain was due to an inassimilable population, and due to a conflict between civilizations and religions.
Some of the world’s most famous buildings which display evidence of these cultural exchanges are located throughout Andalusia (the southern part of Spain which comprises 17% of the country). The eight provincial capitals of Andalusia are Granada, Cordoba, Sevilla, Malaga, Cadiz, Jaen, Almeria, and Huelva. Other sites of Hispano-Islamic heritage can also be found outside of Andalusia throughout Spain, in cities such as Toledo, and scattered in the regions of Valencia, Murcia, La Mancha, Castilla y Leon, Extremadura, Zaragoza and Aragon.
THE GOLDEN AGE OF CORDOBA & GRANADA
The Arab conquest of Gibraltar is one of the events that marked the beginning of 781 years of Moorish domination of Spain. Under Tarik-ibn-Ziyad, this strategically important rock was named after himself Gibel Tarik (the mountain of Tarik). Following their arrival in the year 711, the Arabs established the caliphate of Cordoba, which was the most sophisticated state in Europe. For eight centuries, the Arabs enlightened the area with scientific knowledge and intellectual development. In 1238, Mohamed Ben Alhamar established the Nazari Kingdom of Granada. During the following two and a half centuries, the city reached a high economic, cultural and artistic level, culminating with the gradual construction of the magnificent Alhambra, one of the most admired and visited palaces in the world.
Emirs from the Damascus Caliphate began to establish the Cordoba Caliphate as early as 719. Al-Andalus, the part of Spain under Muslim rule, was then only part of a vast Islamic empire that stretched from the Iberian Peninsula and Morocco to Central Asia and the Punjab. The sole survivor of the Umayyads of Damascus, Abd al-Rahman, founded an independent Muslim state with its capital at Cordoba in 756. Cordoba entered a golden age during this period of rule which brought prosperity and fame to the city. In the 10th century a university was founded which had great renown. What has been called the Golden Age of Spanish Judaism lasted from the 10th to the 12th century.
After 1031, due to secession problems, the division of the Caliphate resulted in taifah kingdoms (taifah meaning faction). After al-Andalus fragmented into small warring kingdoms, Cordoba in 1070 became incorporated in the Kingdom of Sevilla until it was reconquered by the Christian rulers in 1236. Rivalries with other Maghreb dynasties, such as the Almoravids and Almohads, also led to dissension among the taifah kings. Despite political decline, intellectual life did not diminished in Cordoba.
The Cordoba mosque (mezquita) is one of the most famous and beautiful mosques in the world. The characteristic horseshoe shaped arches, with alternating ornamental white stone and red brick, have became the hallmark of Islamic architecture in Spain. The sense of infinity conveyed by Islamic architecture and design was impressed upon this writer who stood amidst the forest of pillars and arches that seemed to extend endlessly in all directions.
To get a sense of Spain's multicultural past, and understand the role of Spanish and Turkish cultural heritage in the Alliance for Civilizations, one must walk the streets of Cordoba and compare them with the streets of Istanbul. Within the narrow streets of the Juderia, or old Jewish quarter in Cordoba, remains Spain’s best known synagogue, which dates back to the 14th century. In a village of Istanbul, known as Ortakoy, one can also gain insight into the historical tolerance which is evident in the adjacent streets that contain an old synagogue, church, and mosque.
As part of the UN’s newly launched global initiative, and in conjunction with UNESCO’s world heritage sites, promoting tourism to these areas of tolerance in the name of an “Alliance for tolerance tourism” should be a priority of joint cooperation between Spain and Turkey (annual events and conferences to promote awareness and offer opportunities for students can be organized in recognition of the International Day of Tolerance, which is observed on November 16—a declaration of principles can be viewed at www.unesco.org/tolerance/declaeng.htm ).
Like Cordoba, the Hispano-Moorish town of Granada was also a centre of study, with an old university founded in 1528. This institution was inherited from the old Madrasa, the Islamic University created by the Sultan Yusuf I, several centuries before.
The Alhambra in Granada is
where Islamic architecture reached its climax in Andalusia
under the rule of the Nasrids. The Alhambra is also known in Spanish as
the Alcazar, which comes from the Arabic Al-Qasr (meaning palace-fortress).
The palace-fortress (Alcazar) and nearby gardens that
surround the quarters of the Arab sovereigns of Granada (the Generalife) include
impressive fountains, patios, pavilions, pools, delicate arcades supported on
slender columns, elegant calligraphic inscriptions and arabesque motifs,
intricate muqarnas, remarkable stuccowork, and decorative azulejós glazed tiles.
Cypress trees, colorful flowerbeds, carnations and geraniums create an
inexplicable aroma, which add to the attractiveness of these very well planned
gardens that leave visitors bewildered and in awe of the splendid views. It is
believed that the name Generalife is derived from the Arabic gennat-al-arif,
which means the gardens of paradise of the Master-Creater.
Further contributions to the legacy of Hispano-Moorish architecture can be found in Mozarab designs and churches (the work and artistic traditions of Christians living under Muslim rule) and in Mudejar architecture (the work of Muslims living under Christian rule after the reconquest).
Granada is also a city
with a wide-ranging mix of magnificent Baroque and Renaissance religious and
civil buildings, a Gothic style Cathedral, and a royal chapel with the tombs of
the Spanish Catholic Monarchs. These historic monuments are found amidst a
modern science park, sports stadium, nearby ski resort, golf course and coastal
hotels.
Like the popular shores of
Turkey’s Mediterranean coast, the Andalusian coast is home to a large number of
towns and beaches. Turks and Spaniards not only share a common Mediterranean
culture, but also welcome tourists with authentic hospitality. Over the last
decade in particular, Turkey, Andalusia, Mallorca and many parts of Spain have
improved the quality of coastal hotels to suit the increasingly demanding
tourist market.
Spain, like Turkey, has a diverse landscape, and even in one region, such as
Granada, contrasts are common--with green mountainous areas, volcanic
landscapes, and white peaks of the
Sierra Nevada. The name of Andalusia’s
main river, the Guadalquivir, is from Arabic, meaning "Great River" (the first
syllable of Guadalquivir is derived from the Arabic word for river, “Oued”).
MOORISH SPAIN & THE RECONQUISTA
The beginning of the
political breakdown of Muslim rule was used by the Christian kingdoms in the
north of the peninsula to accelerate their Reconquista, or Reconquest. Although
the Moors were defeated in Poitiers France in 732, it was not until 1236 that
Cordoba fell, with Sevilla following in 1248. The last stronghold, the Kingdom
of Granada, was conquered by the Catholic monarchs in 1492, leading to an era of
Spanish unity. Isabel of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon, entered Granada three
months before the agreements that enabled the Italian voyager Christopher
Columbus to sail from the Andalusian port of Palos, in Huelva, to discover
America. According to some historians, it is very likely that this voyage to the
New World was guided by skilled Muslim astronomers or navigators (there are
accounts of how Moriscos played a part in the settlement of the Americas).
After Muslim political decline, a less tolerant Christian Spain was
established, where Muslims and Jews were subjected to the Inquisition and
forcibly converted to Christianity. Baptised Muslims, or their descendants, were
referred to as Moriscos, while Jews who converted to Christianity were known as
conversos. The term Moor (moro) referred to a Spanish Muslim (usually a Muslim
with North African origin), but also meant a Christian who is a convert from
Islam.
After the 1492 expulsion edict, many Jews settled in the Ottoman Empire where they found hope and security. Unlike many Christian dominated areas of the world, ancient Jewish communities prospered in Islamic lands without persecution, since Islam commands that Jews and Christians be protected by Muslim communities. Before the arrival of Spanish Jews, the Ottoman Empire had been home to older Jewish communities (i.e. Romaniote and Ashkenazi Jews), and to Jewish refugees who were persecuted under Byzantine rule or who had fled other parts of Europe. The Ottomans also ruled over Jerusalem, which was a place of harmonious coexistence. To ensure their safe settlement, Sultan Beyazit II decreed that Ottoman officials facilitate the arrival of Jews (according to Prof. Stanford Shaw 250,000 Jews came from the Iberian Peninsula). The Jews of the Ottoman Empire constituted the largest and most prosperous Jewish community in the world.
One of the best known Sephardic Jews in the Ottoman Empire was Joseph Nasi, who was born in Portugal to a Marrano family (Marranos were Jewish converts to Christianity who secretly practiced, or reverted to Judaism—in contrast to conversos, who were genuine converts). Many other Jews made significant contributions to Ottoman administration, society and economy due to their high level positions in political and economic affairs. Jews have continued to make contributions to the modern Turkish Republic, where they continue to enjoy security and freedom. Judeo-Spanish, or Ladino, is still spoken and used for publication in the weekly newspaper Salom--just as in the days of the Ottoman Jewish press. The Sephardic population in Turkey is now about 20,000. Jewish-Ottoman heritage and historic sites have received greater attention since the celebration of the 500th anniversary of the arrival of Spanish Jews.
LEGACIES OF MEDITERRANEAN CIVILIZATION
In the 16th century, after the world’s economic and political center of gravity shifted to Spain, Spain served as a direct link between Europe and Africa, and played an important maritime role where the Atlantic Ocean met the Mediterranean. By 1525, Spain was transforming into an imperial power, and after the fall of Constantinople and the Ottoman advance towards Vienna, Spain became aware of an Ottoman threat (it is worth conducting studies to determine how Islam and the Ottomans were feared since Islam had been a great source of intellectual culture). But by the mid-16th century, as Spain’s global power grew, the Ottoman Empire was in decline. The Battle of Lepanto against the Ottomans in 1571, gave Spain mastery of the Mediterranean. It was during this naval battle between the two maritime powers that the famous writer Miguel de Cervantes was captured by the Ottomans and taken to Algeria as a slave, where he remained for 5 years before returning to Spain.
The events leading to the grandeur and decline of Muslim Spain, the rise of Spain as the greatest power on earth, the arrival of Columbus in the New World, encounters with the Ottomans, the expulsion of Jews and Moors, and the voyage of Sephardic Jews to the Ottoman Empire, are just some of the glorious and tragic events that have contributed to creating the multicultural and multireligious heritage of the West and East.
By studying the Mediterranean as a cradle of ancient
civilization and as a center of cultural diffusion, one can better understand
how Islam contributed to the development of Europe, and how the West contributed
to the development of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. Additional studies of
cultural exchange along the Silk Road and during the Crusades should re-evaluate
history in an “Alliance for Civilizations” context. Research can examine how
cultural intermixing and interaction enriched Islamic and Western communities,
and led to the cultivation of universal values and/or conflicts? A second group
of questions might be concerned with how to develop a deeper understanding of
Islam in a post-Sept. 11 world in which an increasing number of people cannot
view Islam with impartiality.
MALLORCA HOSTS WISE MEN
Mallorca is part of the Balearic Islands,
which were united after James I of Aragon recaptured Mallorca from the Muslims
in 1229. During the period the island was occupied by Muslims (902-1229), the
Arabs named the island Madina Mayurqa, and Islamic culture left a clear imprint,
particularly with place names beginning with “Ben.” The period of Islamic rule
is preserved in monuments such as the Arab baths, and a Moorish fortress, the
Almudaina.
Because of its privileged geographic position,
Mallorca was able to have important dealings with traders from the Maghreb,
Italian domains and the Ottoman Empire, which helped build a golden era for the
island. Like the Ottomans, Mallorcans are known for their days of maritime
glory. Archaeological sites, watch towers, castles, and fortified towns can be
explored throughout the Balearic Islands, such as Ibiza. Islanders were also
known as skilful mercenaries in the rival armies of Rome and Carthage.
At the beginning of the 16th century, plague, foreign rebellions and frequent
attacks by Barbary and Ottoman pirates led to a decrease in trade, and the city
entered a period of decline. In the 18th century, after Palma became the capital
of the new province of Baleares, trade with the Indies was established. The
French occupation of Algeria in the 19th century brought an end to the danger of
attacks from pirates, resulting in the expansion of trade routes and economic
growth. The beginning of the 1950's marked the prelude to a tourist boom, which
led to further change in the Balearic Islands.
Since the 19th century many foreign writers, poets and learned men
have visited the island for inspiration. Famous Mallorcans and illustrious
visitors continue to reflect the island’s cosmopolitan outlook. As the
appointed wise men of this age reflect on these vital matters, they will
inevitably draw inspiration from the great leaders before them.
Just as Columbus once had set out from Andalusia in search of the New
World, participants in the UN Alliance for Civilizations conference will have
their eyes set on the same horizon in search of a future that holds high hopes
and new possibilities.
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Islamic architecture throughout Andalusia is a reflection of Spain's rich cultural heritage
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